Prepared by:
Corey Sloat, English Department Lecturer & Coordinator of Support for English-Language Learners
Devon Moore, Co-Director, Writing Across the Curriculum
| The most vital instructor of multilingual writers, in particular, is time. According to Rashid Moore and Hanizah Zainuddin’s report on research about second language acquisition, it takes four to ten years of concentrated effort for a language learner to attain a semblance of native-like fluency (1). Students’ growth in social and spoken English oftentimes outpaces their written English skills by leaps and bounds (Moore and Zainuddin, 4). It is incredibly important to be patient with the second language acquisition process, and to contextualize feedback accordingly. |
Regardless of where a student grew up, or the language they speak at home, all college students are expected to write clearly and efficiently using English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Students’ knowledge and fluency in EAP can vary by socio-economic status, high school experience, regional English variations, etc. Writing in EAP can still be a struggle for monolingual students, as they may have been raised speaking a dialect (Southern English Appalachian English, African American English, etc.) that differs syntactically from EAP. Grasping EAP can also be a challenge for students who are learning English as a second language. As a result of the wide range of preparation they may have had before coming to the University of New Haven, students may require targeted resources in order to compose texts that meet your expectations; however, these students may also be a resource for valuable discussions in class regarding how conventions of EAP are different from the conventions of writing in their home language or dialect.
Teaching in a diverse classroom, it quickly becomes obvious that writers from different backgrounds come with different understandings of what writing entails, how it functions, and what role it plays in establishing identity and interpersonal relationships. Narrowing down what students know and do not know can be difficult. The best way to address this is to consider what we ourselves know about the genres in which we write, and to do our best to make it explicit. Providing students with “explicit, technical instruction” on what you want to see (Séror, 129) can reduce out of classroom collaboration (Séror, 125), anxiety about writing (DiLoreto and McDonough, 32-33), and can also prevent erasure of culturally specific modes of communication (Bartolomé, 352-3) if students are given the chance to position themselves as already competent writers learning new rhetorical strategies.
Learning to speak a second language is an anxiety riddled process; learning to write in a second language maybe more so than writing in one’s first language. Instructor comments can go a long way towards helping manage this anxiety. However, with both multilingual and multidialectical writers, positively focused dialog about instructor feedback can engage student motivation, help students overcome the demotivating effects of a low grade, and reengage the student in the learning process (Di Loreto and McDonough, 32).
How to Teach Academic Writing Conventions to Multilingual/Multidialectal Writers
In her chapter about “Understanding Academic Discourses”, Lilia Bartolomé explains that “even well-intentioned teachers often fail to overtly teach the academic discourses necessary for school success”, yet “teachers require those students to have linguistic competency in the academic discourse that they were never taught in either language” (344). Students’ first language communication styles, particularly oral communication strategies (Bartolomé, 343), may show up in their writing unlooked for, unless we clearly articulate our expectations for their writing. For example:
- The nature of how students present evidence and how they conceive of their audience’s expectations can vary widely. Being overly explicit may be perceived as “distancing, blunt, or condescending” in their first language. They may not have not had “show and tell time” modeled for them in their youth, where they would be asked to present ideas and events as though their reader or listener had no background information (Bartolomé, 348).
- Students may also be unfamiliar with rhetorical strategies involving “topic centered organization of narratives (presenting a main point or a thesis and elaborating about only that main point or thesis)” (Bartolomé, 349). For example, we might see this when students first begin to write in STEM fields or for business purposes, where they may be expected to focus on transmitting information rather than proving a point using illustrative examples.
- Shifting from an oral understanding of communication to a written one in line with Academic English conventions may also mean shifting from “subordinate cultural cues (body language, the use of prosodic cues such as changing intimation” and culturally situated phrasings) to “linguistic cues (such as introductory sentences that inform the listener of the speaker’s main point as well as his or her plans for organizing and presenting the text)” (Bartolomé, 349). Without these cues students are used to relying upon, they may be at a loss as to how to fully communicate their ideas in writing unless we model these rhetorical patterns by analyzing texts as a group.
As mentioned in the main body of the guide in the section on “Reading, Researching, and Writing in the Disciplines”, it is critical to make our understanding of EAP and its conventions explicit. As with most advice for teaching multilingual and multidialectal writers, this becomes even more crucial as they are learning language and content simultaneously. Lilia Bartolomé relates some incredibly direct and helpful advice from Ana Maria Rodino. Rodino (350-1) explains that students must be taught to:
- Write to unsupportive audiences by learning to anticipate a reader’s needs or expectations and by filling in background information to avoid assuming prior knowledge.
- Assess message effectiveness on-line with a lack of visual and body communication cues.
- Self-monitor and self-repair (using instructive resources from and outside of the course materials).
- Use precise lexical references to control the complex syntax necessary to make explicit all relationships between ideas and sustain lexicalized cohesion across the whole text.
If a student demonstrates a lack of understanding of content, is seemingly “inaccurate” by EAP standards, or her/his writing bears markers of characteristics related to rhetorical traditions from outside of American universities, it may be helpful to try running a diagnostic to find out the specific element of comprehension/production with which they are in need of help.
Running a Diagnostic
Step one: Are you seeing a multilingual/multidialectal student struggling with EAP as a dialect, or with understanding concepts & composing writing in an American academic context?
Step two: If so, consider if your student is struggling with comprehension, or production.
Are they producing coherent papers, but seeming to miss the point?
This is likely a Comprehension/Input issue.
Are they grasping the concepts, but having trouble producing coherent writing?
This is likely a Production/Output issue.
Do they seem to miss important concepts and struggle to produce coherent writing?
They may be having trouble with both input and output. (Or the problem may transcend language learning and the student may require support from the Accessibility Resource Center.)
Step three: Can you identify one, or more, specific issues that are deeply affecting their ability to understand or communicate ideas in your field? Below are suggestions for how to support multilingual/multidialectal students who are struggling with writing.
Input Problems
Reading comprehension: Are students having trouble reading lexically/grammatically dense course texts or do they lack content specific vocabulary? Are they struggling to understand assignment requirements or directions?
How to help:
| It is easy to forget that students are sometimes simultaneously learning course content and new words to describe the course content in an unfamiliar language. |
Provide students with vocabulary lists to cut down on the time it will take them to process readings. Kei Lutalo (Director of Academic English Preparatory Program), frequently works with department chairs to develop vocabulary lists for ELL/LM students. If this does not already exist for your program, feel free to reach out to him (klutalo@newhaven.edu).
- If you notice students are struggling with vocabulary in timed writing situations (essay tests, etc.) consider allowing them to utilize vocabulary lists, electronic dictionaries, or paper dictionaries to ensure students have the words they need to parse exam questions and formulate their responses.
- Require students to write brief summaries or reflections as informal Writing-To-Learn (WTL) assignments so instructors can gauge the depth of understanding
- Teach students to annotate assignment sheets and be detailed in your expectations. Encourage students to include comprehension and vocabulary-related questions in their annotations.
- Recommend students visit the Writing Center. Tutors can help students work on reading comprehension, annotating assignment sheets, etc. Telling your students which specific skills to focus on during their appointment will help them to get the most out of their time with the tutor.
Listening comprehension: Are students struggling to understand spoken English instruction or balancing their attention to your words with strong note-taking skills? Are they missing elements of assignments that have been verbally communicated, but maybe not written out?
How to help:
- Provide written assignment sheets to accompany verbally communicated assignments
- Provide lecture notes so students can fill in information gaps. Instructors can also use Kaltura (or other recording software) to record lectures so students can revisit them later
- Bring awareness to speech that may be culturally exclusive (slang, pop culture references, etc), and ensure that full explanations are given so students can make connections and open up discussion for parallels in student experience.
- Allow students to discuss assignments & come up with questions in groups.
- Require students to complete an “Exit Ticket” WTL assignment. Ask them to answer questions that allow the instructor to see where them may have gotten off track:
- “What did you learn in today’s class?”
- “What was the biggest takeaway from today’s class?”
Output Problems
Situated Writing: Are your students producing work that is not appropriate for the assignment parameters, or writing that is not directed towards an academic audience? Do they inappropriately express their position in the conversation?
How to help:
- Ensure that the audience is clear for all assignments
- Discuss as a class what it means to write to an academic audience versus writing informally. It may also be helpful to discuss different types of formality- the way you speak to an elder may differ from how you speak to a boss or esteemed peers.
- Suggest students visit the Writing Center to work with a tutor on writing to an academic audience, formal writing, using reliable sources, etc. Telling your students which specific skills to focus on during their appointment will help them to get the most out of their time with the tutor.
- Check the WAC blackboard page or reach out to the WAC team for student readings regarding style/tone.
Evidence/Citation: Are students producing work that shows an interaction with the types of information/processes you would expect a writer in your field to work with? If so, are those interactions documented according to the conventions used in your field (MLA, APA, etc…)?
How to help:
- Ensure students understand the conventions of writing in your field. Make this part of regular class discussion, WTL activities, exit tickets, etc.
- Ask students what citation conventions (if any) they have been taught previously- do they hold views on “ownership” of ideas that differ from university expectations? If so, how can we work together to develop a new understanding of the purpose of citation?
- Suggest students visit the Writing Center to work on using quotations, explaining quotations, using outside sources to support their argument, citations, etc. Telling your students which specific skills to focus on during their appointment will help them to get the most out of their time with the tutor.
- Students can also visit the Writing Center to discuss finding and using reliable sources
- Suggest students make an appointment with a librarian to discuss reliable sources & learn to use the research databases
- Check the WAC blackboard page or reach out to the WAC team for student readings regarding genre conventions, evidence or citations.
Formatting: Are your students struggling with formatting an essay in a way that ‘makes sense’ to an academic reader? Are paragraphs logical units of argument? Does information come in the order you would personally expect?
How to help:
- Review sample student papers or class readings as examples to deconstruct how other writers arrange their arguments.
- Suggest students visit the Writing Center to work on paragraphing, developing an argument or organization. Telling your students which specific skills to focus on during their appointment will help them to get the most out of their time with the tutor.
- Check the WAC blackboard page or reach out to the WAC team for student readings regarding paragraphing, argumentation, outlining or organization.
Mechanics/Conventions: Are students struggling with English grammar, word choice, and tone? Can you pinpoint one or two specific grammatical/mechanical errors that are interrupting their ability to communicate clearly?
How to help:
- Focus on systemic issues that disrupt comprehension, particularly those specific to a field of writing, rather than localized linguistic errors. Finding the right balance between perfection and comprehension can keep your comments from overwhelming a student who is already struggling to learn content in a second language.
- Model a correction of a common error and ask students to find more of the same error and fix it themselves. Try also linking to an online resource that explains the grammatical rule you wish them to learn.
- Keep feedback manageable; explain why your comment is important, how to act on your advice, and tailor your feedback to students’ reading levels.
- Try to maintain a steady flow of feedback that will help students develop habits of self-analysis and self-correction (Evans et al, 451-2) over the course of the semester.
- Suggest students visit the Writing Center to work on utilizing consistent verb tenses, punctuation, or citation. Telling your students which specific skills to focus on during their appointment will help them to get the most out of their work with the tutor.
- Check the WAC blackboard page or reach out to the WAC team for student readings regarding aspects of writing with which students may be struggling.
Resources
- Grammar Girl – articles & podcasts that explain grammar rules in plain English
- The Writing Center – direct students to the Writing Center to get help on specific aspects of grammar.
- See Appendix A of the WAC Guide & Presentation slides for grammar-related resources regarding common errors.
- Check the WAC Blackboard page for links to other online resources.
References
Bartolomé, Lilia I. “Understanding Academic Discourses.” Counterpoints, vol. 422, 2012, pp. 342–356. www.jstor.org/stable/42981766.
Di Loreto, Sabrina, and Kim McDonough. “The Relationship Between Instructor Feedback And ESL Student Anxiety.” TESL Canada Journal 31.1 (2013): 20-41. ERIC. Web. 29 Dec. 2016.
Evans, Norman W., et al. “Contextualizing Corrective Feedback In Second Language Writing Pedagogy.” Language Teaching Research 14.4 (2010): 445-463. ERIC. Web. 29 Dec. 2016.
Moore, Rashid A., and Hanizah Zainuddin. “ESL Learners, Writing And The Acquisition Of Academic Language.” (2003): ERIC. Web. 29 Dec. 2016.
Séror, Jeremie. “Alternative Sources Of Feedback And Second Language Writing Development In University Content Courses.” Canadian Journal Of Applied Linguistics / Revue Canadienne De Linguistique Appliquee 14.1 (2011): 118-143. ERIC. Web. 29 Dec. 2016.
